Cumming, G. S., and J. Collier. 2005. Change and identity in complex systems. Ecology and Society 10(1): 29.

2.4.4.3 INTEGRATIVE METHODS AND MODELS: Models - Complex and cross-scale Complex human-environment systems have many interacting components, some of which behave in non-linear and/or adaptive ways. Thus changes in the system are not simply predictable from the original state of their components. These emergent properties may increase or reduce vulnerabilities across temporal and spatial scales. The Reading which features ecosystem examples focuses on how to define systems and what constitutes processes of change. Five metamodels of complex ecosystem change are offered beginning with Holling’s adaptive cycle (1.4.2.3) and possible variants of randomness, replacement, limitation, and succession.

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